The fall of the Roman Empire had a lasting impact on Europe, leading to the fragmentation of political entities and the rise of feudalism. This transition from centralized Roman authority to localized power structures resulted in a period often referred to as the Dark Ages, marked by social, economic, and cultural decline. Trade routes deteriorated, literacy rates fell, and urban centers declined. However, this era also laid the groundwork for the eventual emergence of modern nations, the establishment of the Catholic Church as a unifying force, and the gradual revival of commerce and culture during the Renaissance.